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Grammar Made Easy, 



U'OR. THOSE 



Who have never Learned anything relating to 

Grammar, and for those who in early years 

have Learnt its Eules, but have neglected 

or forgotten to practice them. 



IT BEING A 



COMPLETE MAM OF INSTRUCTION 



FOB 



CORRECT SPEAKING, WRITING AND SPELLING 
FOR ADULTS. 



NEW YORK: 
HURST & CO., PUBLISHERS, 

75 and 77 Nassau Stbeet. 



I 


£>$*1 


CONTENTS. 




Introduction ..... 


PAGE 

. 5 


Divisions of Grammar ....... 


6 


Parts of Speech . 


. 7 


The Article ..... 


8 


The Silent H 


. 11 


Nouns . , . . . 


12 


Formation of the Plural . 


. 13 


Genders of Nouns .... 


16 


Cases of Nouns ..... 


. . 17 


Comparison of Adjectives 


20 


Personal Pronouns .... 


. 23 


Relative Pronouns . . . . 


24 


Demonstrative Pronouns 


. 25 


Begular and Irregular Verbs 


. • . 25 


Shall and Will 


. 27 


The Adverb . . . . 


29 


Misapplication of "Words 


. 29 


Division of Words .... 


30 


Capital Letters 


. 31 


■\ Rules for Spelling 


32 


Double I and p 


. 38 


A Short Syntax .... 


41 


Punctuation . . . 

* 


. 47 


Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S73, by Hukst & Co 


., in the office of the 



Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 



INTEODUCTION. 

Grammar is the science which treats of the principles and rules 
of spoken and written language ; and teaches the proper use of 
letters, syllables, words, and sentences. 

The object of English grammar is to teach those who use the 
English language to express their thoughts correctly, either in 
speaking or writing. 

Dr. Blair, in his " Lectures on Rhetoric," says : — " The struc- 
ture of language is extremely artificial ; and there are few sciences 
in which a deeper or more refined logic is employed than in gram- 
mar. It is apt to be slighted by superficial thinkers, as belonging 
to those rudiments of knowledge whicli were inculcated upon us 
in our earliest youth. But what was then inculcated before we 
could comprehend its principles would abundantly repay our study 
in maturer years." 

But few persons can afford time for the study of grammar, and 
perhaps fewer still have the inclination. The English language 
is, without doubt, the mos^ neglected, and carelessly spoken and 
WTitten, language in Europe. Tenfold the time and attention that 
is given to it is devoted by the educated classes to the study of 
Greek and Latin ; and it may be truly affirmed that there are more 
men in England who can write Greek and Latin correctly than who 
can write English. An Oxford examiner states, in the " Public 
Schools' Report," that in one of the examinations In Litcris IIu- 
manwribics, " nearly half the passmen were imperfect spellers," and 
that M five-sixths of the pupil- teachers in schools receiving aid 
from Government are better readers than five-sixths of the men 
who come to the University." Another examiner says : — u I have 



8 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

had sometimes to remind myself and my brother examiners that 
we were not at liberty to pluck for bad spelling, bad English, or 
worse writing." Many of these men would enter the Senate, the 
Bar, and the Church, and help to spread a careless and incorrect 
style. 

It is highly useful, from time to time, to refresh the memory 
with " rules " which tend to make us careful, even if they do not 
make us perfect. To give the chief rules in a plain and brief 
form, so that " all who run may read," is the object of this little 
work. Dr. Campbell, in his " Philosophy of Rhetoric," justly 
says : — " The rules of our language should breathe the same 
spirit as the laws of our country. They should be bars against 
licentiousness, without being checks to liberty." 

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR. 

English Grammar is divided usually into four parts, namely 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of letters, and of the mode of combining 
them into syllables and words. But Orthography is the province 
of the lexicographer, rather than the grammarian^ and a breach 
of it is not even called bad grammar. However, we shall give 
concise rules for spelling plurals, etc., correctly, and directions for 
acquiring correct Orthography as of the highest importance to 
every one. 

Etymology treats of the various classes of words, and of the 
changes which they undergo. But only one branch of it, namely, 
the inflexions of words, or changes in their determinations, is usu- 
ally included in Grammar ; Derivation being a separate study. 

Syntax treats of the connection of words and their arrangement 
into sentences. 

Prosody treats of the quantity or length of syllables, of accent, 
and of the laws of versification. Some grammarians consider that 
it should include Punctuation, or the management of stops, Pro- 
nunciation and Rhetoric. But we think that Punctuation should 
form a fifth division, while Pronunciation properly belongs to El- 
ocution, and Rhetoric to Composition. 

PARTS OF SPEECH. 

There are in English nine classes of words, or, as they are com- 
monly called, Parts of Speech, namely : — 



THE ARTICLE. 9 

ft. The Article ; prefixed to substantives or nouns, to point them 
out, and to show how far their signification extends. 

2. The Substantive, or Noun ; being the name of any person, 
place, or thing conceived to exist, or of which we have any no- 
tion. 

3. The Pronoun (from pro, for) ; used instead of a noun, to avoid 
repetition. 

4. The Adjective ; added to the noun, to express its quality or 
property. 

5. The Verb, or Word (from Verbum, a word), so called by way 
of eminence ; signifying to be, to do, or to suffer. 

6. The Adverb ; added to verbs, and also to adjectives, and 
other adverbs, to express some circumstance of quality or action 
belonging to them. 

7. The Preposition (from pre, before) ; put before nouns and 
pronouns chiefly, to connect them with other words, and to show 
their relation to those words. 

8. The Conjunction ; connecting words and sentences. 

9. The Interjection; thrown in to express the emotion of the 
speaker, though unnecessary with respect to the construction of 
the sentence. 

Example. 

1272512 4 7285 

The power of speech is a faculty peculiar to man, and was 
57373 4 2 7 1 4 8 

bestowed on him by his beneficent Creator for the greatest and 
'6 4 2 89 6G53537 

most excellent uses ; but alas ! how often do we pervert it to 
14 7 2 

the worst of purposes. 

In the foregoing sentence, the words the, a, are Articles ; power 
speech, faculty, man, Creator, uses, purposes, are Substantives ; him, 
his, we, it, are Pronouns ; peculiar, beneficent, greatest, excellent, worst t 
are Adjectives ; is, was, bestowed, do, pervert, are Verbs ; most, how, 
often, are Adverbs ; of, to, on, by, for, are Prepositions ; and, but, are 
Conjunctions ; and alas ! is an Interjection. 

THE ARTICLE. 

In English there are two articles, a or an, and the. A is used in 



10 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

a vague sense to point out one single thing of the kind, in other 
respects indeterminate; the determines what particular thing is 
, meant. 

A substantive, without any article to limit it, is taken in its 
widest sense : thus man means all mankind ; as, 

'* The proper study of mankind is man," — Pope. 

Where mankind and man may change places, without making any 
alteration in the sense. A man means some one or other of that 
kind, indefinitely ; the man means, definitely, that particular man, 
who is spoken of: the former therefore is called the Indefinite, the 
latter the Definite Article. 

For example : " Man was made for society, and ought to extend 
his good will to all men : but a man will naturally entertain a more 
particular kindness for the men with whom he has the most fre- 
quent intercourse ; and enter into* a still closer union with the man 
whose temper and disposition suit best with Iris own." 

It is of the nature of both the articles to determine or IftnU the 

thing spoken of: a determines it to be one single thing of the 

ff. kind, leaving it still uncertain which ; the determines which it is, 

\ or, of many, which they are. The first, therefore, can onlv be 

A joined to substantives in the singular number; the last may also 

be joined to plurals. 

There is a remarkable exception to this rule in the use of the 
adjectives few and many (the latter chiefly with the word great be- 
fore it), which though joined with plural substantives, yet admit 
of the singular article a ; as, A few men, a great many men. The 
reason of it is manifest from the effect which the article has in 
these phrases ; it means a small or great number collectively tak- 
en, and therefore gives the idea of a whole that is of unity. Thus 
likewise, a hundred, a thousand, is one whole number, an aggregate 
of many collectively taken, which like a dozen, or a score, we are 
accustomed equally to consider on certain occasions as a simple 
unity ; and therefore still retains the article a, though joined as an 
adjective to a plural substantive ; as, A hundred years. 

A is frequently used to denote a rate or proportion ; as, Five 
hundred a year, three dollars a bottle, and is sometimes prefixed 
to the present participle of active verbs ; as, Gone ^-hunting, come 
a-begging. 

The definite article the is sometimes applied to adverbs in the 



THE SILENT H. 11 

comparative and superlative degree ; and its effect is to mark the 
degree the more strongly, and to define it the more precisely ; as, 
" The more I examine it, the better I like it." " I like this the least 
of any." 

When the indefinite article is to be placed before a noun, a or 
an is employed according as the one or the other can be more 
readily formed by the organs of speech, and is more pleasing to 
the ear when pronounced along "with the word which follows. 
Therefore, a is used before words beginning with a consonant, the 
sounds of w and y, and the long sound of u; as, A book, a word 
a youth, many a one (wun), a European, # unit, ^eulogy, « ewe. The 
pronunciation of y or iv at the beginning of a word, requires such 
an effort in the conformation of the parts of the mouth, as does not 
easily admit of the article an before them. In other cases the ar- 
ticle an in a manner coalesces with the vowel which it precedes : 
in this, the effort of pronunciation separates the article, and pre- 
vents the disagreeable consequences of a sensible hiatus. 

An is used before words beginning with - vowel, as. An army ; 
silent h, as An hour ; and before h sounded when the accent is on 
the second syllable, to avoid the hiatus, as, An hallucination, an 
Hercu'lean frame, an hered'itary estate, an heroic or her<j ical action, 
an hia'tus, an histor'ic or historical account, an hydrau'lic ram, etc. 

THE SILENT JI, 

Although the pronunciation of the aspirate or letter h, properly 
belongs to that branch of Elocution called Orthoepy, it is here ad- 
visable to give a list of the words in which the h is silent. 

The h in each of the following words and their other deriva- 
tives was formerly silent : heir, heiress, heirloom ; herb, herbage ; 
honest, honesty, honestly ; honor, honorable, honorably, honorary ; 
hospital; hostler; hour, hourly; humor, humorist, humorously ; 
humble, humility ; and to aspriate any of them was considered as 
gross a fault as to prefix an aspirate to a vowel. But the fashion 
of pronunciation has altered, and some of these words are now 
aspirated. Nevertheless, great difference of opinion exists among 
the best authorities. Smart aspirates " herb," and all its deriva- 
tives, but Dr. Noah Webster, while aspirating all the derivatives, 
most inconsistently makes the h silent in " herb." > Smart makes 
the h silent in " hostler," while Dr. Webster aspirates the word, 
very properly, we think, for it is a corruption of "hosteller," an 



12 GKAMMAR MADE EASY. 

inn-keeper, or host of an inn. " Humble," is now aspirated by 
the most highly educated and refined. 

We know of no good reason why any of the above few words 
should be deprived of the aspirate, and pronounced differently to 
their fellows, but as all-potent custom denies the aspirate to them, 
we must obey. But however desirable it would be to remove all 
these exceptions, so powerful is habit in pronunciation, that to as- 
pirate some of these words at present, would be highly unpleasant 
to a polished ear. Nevertheless, when custom changes, as in the 
above instances, we think it well to follow, in this case, a good ex- 
ample, for b} r so doing, we may, in course of time, remove the few 
exceptions which trouble many persons without improving the 
language. 

We would therefore limit the silent h to the following words, 
upon which nearly all authorities are agreed : heir, heiress, heir- 
loom ; honest, honesty, honestly ; honor, honorable, honorably, 
honorary; hour, hourly; humor humorous, humorously, and 
their other derivatives. 

" Humble-pie " is an incorrect spelling of " umble-pie," a pie 
made of u umbles," a plural noun, meaning a deer's entrails, prob- 
ably derived from the Latin umbilicus, the " navel." " Umbilic," 
was once used, substantively for the " navel." Thus, to "eat um- 
ble-pie," is to eat of the poorest dish. The h is a wrong spelling, 
and should be omitted. 

"Humble-bee," a bee of a large kind, with no sting, corruptly 
called " bumble-bee " in some parts of the country, is not related 
to the word "humble," signifying " humility," but is derived from 
the verb " to hum," and consequently has always had the h as- 
pirated. " Humming-bird " is derived from the same verb. 

NOUNS 

Are inflected, or changed in their form, by Number, Gender, and 
Case, to express their various relations to the things which they 
represent, and to other words in the same sentence. 

The English language, in comparison with the Greek, Latin, 
German, and French, and many other languages, has very few in- 
flections. Its general deficiency in this respect is compensated by 
the more frequent use of pronouns, prepositions, etc. 

Inflection is not necessarily confined to the end of the word, 



FORMATION" OF THE PLURAL. 13 

but is often made in the word : as, Man, men ; mouse, mice ; 
spring, sprang. 

FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

Number is that inflection by which we indicate, whether the word 
represents one, or more than one. 

There are two Numbers, the Singular, which expresses one of a 
kind, and the Plural, which expresses more than one. 

Nouns generally form the plural by adding the letter s to the 
singular, when the letter s readily combines in sound with the last 
letter or syllable ; as, Book, books; pen, pens. 

But when the letter s does not readily combine in sound with 
the last letter or syllable of the singular, the plural is formed by 
adding es. Thus, nouns ending in ch soft, sh, ss, s, x, or o after a 
consonant, take es instead of s only ; as, Church, churches; brush, 
brushes; kiss, kisses; omnibus, omnibuses; fox, foxes; hero, he- 
roes. 

The following words ending in o after a consonant are exceptions 
\o the rule, and form their plural by adding s only : — Canto, grot- 
to, junto, portico, octavo, quarto, solo, tyro. 

Nouns ending in ch hard, and in o preceded by a vowel, form 
the plural by adding s only; as, Monarch, monarchs; folio, 
folios. 

Nouns ending in/or/e change/ or fe into ves ; as, Calf, cakes; 
knife, knives ; leaf, leaves. 

Except the following terminations, which are regular, and take 
sonly: — oof, as Roof, roofs; ief, as Chief, chiefs; ff, as Muff, 
muffs; rf, as Wharf, wharfs; and two ending in/e, namely, strife, 
strifes ; fife, fifes. Thief makes thieves. 

Nouns ending in y preceded by a consonant, change y into ics; 
as, Duty, duties; glory, glon'es. 

In like manner the word alkali has alkalies in the plural. But 
nouns ending in y preceded by a vowel, and proper names used as 
common nouns, follow the general rule, and add only s; as, Day, 
days; valley, valleys; Henry, Henrys. 

Few words are so often erroneously spelled as those ending in 
y or ey, when they change that form to become plural. 

Some authors and printers still write and print a few words end- 
ing in ey in the singular with ics when plural; as, Atto-ripv. nt~ 



14 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

tormVs; chimney, chimmVs; journey, journeys; money, monies; 
volley, volhVs. 

Many nouns do not follow the preceding rules, and are there- 
fore called irregular; as, Man, men : child, children ; foot, feet, 
etc. 

Such words as aide-de-camp, court-martial, son-in-law, etc., 
from the plural by changing the first word only ; as, Aides-de- 
camp, courts-martial, sons-in-law, etc. 

The compounds of man, namely, alderman, footman, woman, 
etc., form the plural, like the simple word, by changing a in the 
singular into e in the plural ; as, Aldermen, footmen, women, 
etc. 

Such words as Mussulman, Turcoman, are not compounds of 
man, but distinct words, and form the plural by adding s. 

Some nouns vary the plural to express a difference of meaning; 
as, Brother, brothers (sons of the same parent), brethren (mem- 
bers of the same faith or profession) ; die, dies (stamps for coin- 
ing), dice (small cubes used in games) ; genius, geniuses (persons 
of great, original, and creative intellect), genii (spirits) ; index, 
indexes (tables of contents) ; indices (signs in Algebra) ; pea, peas 
(single seeds) ; pease (seeds in a mass) ; penny, pennies (coins), 
pence (value of coins in computation). 

Nouns which have been adopted from foreign languages with- 
out change, sometimes retain their original plurals ; as, Animal- 
cuium, animalcula; appendix, appendices ; bandit, banditti ; basis, 
bases; bean, beaux; cherub, cherubim ; criterion, criteria; crisis 
crises; datum, data; desideratum, desiderata; effluvium, effluvia; 
ellipsis, ellipses ; erratum, errata ; focus, foci ; genus, genera ; 
hypothesis, hypotheses ; medium, media; memorandum, memo- 
randa ; metamorphosis, metamorphoses ; monsieur, messieurs ; 
phenomenon, phenomena ; radius, radii ; seraph, seraphim ; stim- 
ulus, stimuli ; stratum, strata ; vertex, vertices ; virtuoso, virtusoi ; 
vortex, vortices. Cherubs and seraphs are also correct. 

Many nouns have no plural : these are chiefly proper names, 
names of virtues and vices, arts and sciences, metals, grain, and 
things that can be weighed and measured ; as, America, New York ; 
wisdom, goodness ; poetry, music, arithmetic ; gold, silver ; wheat, 
barley ; meat, butter ; beer, milk, etc. 

However, when the different kinds are meant, ale, tea, wine, etc., 
pw, in commercial language, often used in the plural ; as, Fine 



GENDERS OF NOUNS. 15 

ales, old wines, new teas, etc. So also when particular acts are 
signified ; as, Kindnesses. 

Some nouns have no singular number ; as, Bellows, drawers, 
mathematics, thanks, scissors, etc. 

Among this class of words are to be reckoned letters, signifying 
literature and manners in the sense of behavior. Amends, means, 
odds, are either singular or plural. News is generally used as sin- 
gular ; likewise alms and gallows. 

Some nouns have the singular and plural the same ; as, Brace, 
dozen, score, swine, salmon, etc. Others take a to make the sin- 
gular ; as, a deer. It is incorrect to say three pairs of boots, five 
dozens of wine. But the plural form is used when there is no 
word to limit the number j as, Dozens of gloves, scores of pres- 
ents, hundreds of people. 

The proper plurals of the'words spoonful, mouthful, and such- 
like, are spoonfuls, mouthfuls, and not spoonsful, mouthsful. 
Between these and the preceding there is an essential difference, 
for "Two large spoonfuls of this mixture to be taken," implies 
that twice the quantity a spoon will hold is to be taken ; but 
" Two large spoonsful of this mixture to be taken," may signify 
that the spoons also are to be swallowed. " Spoonsful " must be 
many spoons full ; but " spoonfuls " means many contents of one 
spoon. " Spoonful " is a distinct word, and forms its plural regu- 
larly like ordinary words. In Johnson's dictionary the word 
" spoonful " is given as a substantive, and all substantives which 
form their plurals regularly, do so by adding an s at the end and 
not in the middle of the word. In like manner five wine-glasses- 
ful would mean five different glasses full j but five wine-glassfuls 
means five times the contents of one glass. 

The same rule will apply to other words of a similar class ; as, 
Handful, handfuls ; pailful, pailfuls ; puncheonful, puncheonfuls ; 
hundredweight, hundredweights. 

GENDERS OF NOUNS. 

Properly speaking, there are only two genders, the masculine 
and the feminine, corresponding to the two sexes ; but as many 
nouns belong to neither sex, these are classed together, and de- 
nominated neuter, that is, of neither gender. 

When a noun may be applied either to a male or a female, it is 
said to be of the common gender ; as, Parent, child, friend. 



16 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

There are three ways of distinguishing the masculine from the 
feminine : 

1. By a different ending ; as, Duke, duchess. 

2. By a different word ; as. Husband, wife. 

3. By prefixing a noun, an adjective, or a pronoun ; as, Man- 
servant, maid-servant ; male-child, female-child ; he-goat, she- 
goat. 

Some neuter nouns may be used as masculine or feminine, by a 
figure of speech, called personification* Thus we say of the sun, 
"lie is rising; " of the moon, "she is setting; " and of a ship, 
" she sails well." 

The sun, time, death, summer, winter, autumn, love, and similar 
words, when personified, are masculine. 

The moon, religion, virtue (and all particular virtues ; as, char- 
ity), the earth, spring, a ship, a state, a city, a country (and all 
1 particular countries), the soul, the mind, and similar words, when 
personified, are feminine. 

In speaking of animals in a general manner, we attribute the 
masculine sex to some, and the feminine to others, although they 
really possess both. Thus the ass, the eagle, the dog, the fox, the 
horse, the lion, etc., are spoken of as masculine ; while the cat, 
the camel, the hare, the ostrich, are generally considered as femi- 
nine. 

Most of the smaller creatures, with reptiles and fishes, are usu- 
ally spoken of as neuter. But there are some exceptions ; and 
most of those animals that have been made the subjects of popu- 
lar fables, have had a particular gender ascribed to them, 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

There are three cases of nouns in English, the Nominative, the 
Possessive, and the Objective ; which three cases are expressive of 
the three states of relation to other words, in one or other of 
which the name of every person; place, or thing must be placed. 

A noun is in the nominative case when it is the subject of an 
affirmation or a question. 

A noun is in the possessive case when it expresses ownership or 
possession. 

A noun is in the objective case when it is the end or object of an 
action, or of some relation expressed by a preposition. 

Thus, in the example,, " John took Robert's knife, and put it 






CASES OF KOTOS. 17 

into the pocket of William's coat," two affirmations are made by the 
verbs took and put. The subject of these affirmations, or the per- 
son who took and put, was John, whose name is, therefore, in the 
nominative case. The object or end of John's action in taking, 
was the knife; the object pointed out by the preposition into was 
the pocket ; and the object pointed out by the preposition of, was 
coat ; the words knife, pocket, and coat, are therefore in the objec- 
tive case. The owner of the knife was Robert, and the owner of 
the coat was William ; hence the words JRobcrfs and Williams are 
in the possessive case. 

The nominative and the objective cases of nouns are always 
alike in form, in English. 

The possessive singular and the possessive plural are the most 
important to be noticed, as showing more particularly where the 
apostrophe (') should be placed ; that is, whether before or after the 
s. Mistakes in this respect are often made by educated people. 

The possessive singular is formed by adding an apostrophe and s 
to the nominative ; as, Queen, queen's ; the scholar's books. 

If the apostrophe were placed after the s in " The scholar's 
books," thus : " The scholars' books," it would imply several 
scholars. 

When the nominative singular ends in s, ss, cc, or any other 
letter or syllable which will not combine in sound with s, the pos- 
sessive is formed by adding an apostrophe only ; as, Moses' rod, 
for righteousness' sake, for conscience' sake. 

The possessive plural is formed by adding an apostrophe to the 
nominative plural when the latter ends in s ; as, Kings, kings 1 , on 
eagles' wings. It may be observed that, " on eagles' wings " im- 
plies any number of eagles, but if the apostrophe were placed be- 
fore the s, it would then mean one eagleonly. 

But when the nominative plural does not end in s, the possess- 
ive is formed by adding s after an apostrophe ; as, Men, men's ; 
the children's books. 

When two or more nouns in the possessive case are closely 
joined, the apostrophe and s, or * and apostrophe, is annexed only 
to the last, and understood as to the rest ; as, Shakespeare and 
Milton's works. But if several words intervene, the 's or s' is 
added to each ; as, He took his father's, as well as his mother's 
advice. 

It is a common but gross error to write pronouns in the pos- 



18 GRAMMAR MADE EAST. 

sessive case with an apostrophe before the s ; as, Iter's for hers ; 
their' s for theirs; oar's for oars; your's for yours. The s alone, 
without the apostrophe, is sufficient, that letter in these words de- 
noting the possessive case. Her, their, etc., describe possession, 
and the s is merely annexed to indicate the omission of the im- 
plied name that would have appeared if the s had been omitted. 
It would be as reasonable to write plurals or others with an apos- 
trophe, thus — pluraVs, other's — as to write her's and their' s for hers 
and theirs. - 

Mr. Davidson says : " A similar, yet more irrational practice, is 
followed up by the prevalent use of your's and yours', respectively. 
It is a wild fancy, indeed, to imagine that yours, which is on all 
hands allowed to be plural, can be curtailed or lengthened at 
pleasure, to mean either one or two, by the mere position of the 
apostrophe. This error is more frequently found at the conclu- 
sion of letters after this manner; — \ I am, sir, your's, etc. ; ' or, ( I 
am, gentlemen, yours', etc.' Probably it is the practice of plac- 
ing the apostrophe before and after what has been called the pos- 
sessive case of names, for the singular and plural, that has led to 
this violation, but this reduces the thing to a still more pitiable 
condition, for the spelling of your itself indicates possession equally 
with the 's, and therefore your's or yours' involves the absurdity of 
a double possessive." 

COMPARISON OP ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives have three forms : — the Positive, which does not ex- 
press comparison ; as, A rich man. 

The Comparative, which expresses comparison between two, or 
between one and a number taken collectively ; as, John is richer 
than James : he is richer than all the merchants in New York. 

The Superlative, which expresses comparison between one and 
a number of individuals, or things taken separately ; as, John is 
the richest man in New York. It is t\\eji72est house in the street. 

The comparative is formed by adding cr to the positive ; as, 
Great greater; small, smaller. 

When the positive ends in e, the letter r only is added ; as, Large, 
larger. 

The superlative is formed by adding est to the positive j as, 
Great, greatest; small, smalls. 



COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 19 

When the positive ends in e the letters st only are added ; as, 
large, largest 

When the positive ends in y preceded by a consonant, the y is 
changed into i before er and est; as, Happy, happier, happi^. 

When the positive ends in a single consonant, preceded by a 
single vowel, the consonant is doubled before er and est; as, Hot, 
hotter, hottest 

Adjectives of one syllable, and dissyllables ending in y and e 
usually form the comparative and superlative according to the 
preceding rules, but all other adjectives of two syllables, and ad- 
jectives of more than two syllables, usually form the comparative 
and superlative by prefixing more and most ; as, Useful, more use- 
ful, most useful. This is a modern practice. In Milton, for in- 
stance, we find famousest, virtuousest, etc. A few adjectives form 
the superlative by adding most to the positive or comparative ; as, 
Fore, foremost ; upper, uppermost 

Many grammarians object to the addition of the comparative 
and superlative terms when the adjective already expresses the 
highest degree ; as, Chief, empty, false, honest, complete, extreme, 
full, perfect, supreme, true, universal, etc. Yet some of these 
forms are found in most languages, and in our own old authors. 
Not only Bacon, Spenser, and Shakespeare, but later writers, Dry- 
den and Addison, use extremcst ; and there is equal authority for 
chief est and more perfect. But such forms, although authorized by 
great and classic writers, are best avoided, as being logically in- 
correct. They are not generally employed by our best modern 
authors. 

The adverb very is often prefixed to the positive "to increase its 
signification by expressing a degree of quality somewhat less than 
the greatest or superlative degree ; as, Wise, very wise. 

A form used to express a very high degree of any quality, with- 
out directly comparing the object with any other, by prefixing an 
adverb or adjective in the superlative degree, as, An extremely fine 
day, a most beautiful garden, is called the superlative of eminence, 
or superlative absolute. 

The syllable ish is sometimes added to the positive to lessen its 
signification ; as, Black, blackish. When the positive ends in e t 
4.he e is omitted before ish ; as, White, whit/sA. A degree some- 
what less than the positive may also be expressed without direct 
comparison, by prefixing an adverb ; as, Rather salt, somewhat sour. 



20 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 



And the lower and lowest degrees may be expressed by prefixing 
the adverbs less and least; as, Less useful, least useful. This is 
called the comparison of diminution. 

Elder and eldest are applied to persons ; and according to the 
best authorities only in comparing members of the same family ; 
as, An elder brother ; the eldest sister ; he is the eldest of the family. 

Older and oldest are applied to strangers and to things j as, John 
is older than Thomas ; it is the oldest house in the town. 

The following adjectives are irregular in the formation of the 
comparative and superlative : — 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Bad, ) 


- 




Evil, } 
HI, ) 


worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


( farther, 
( further, 


( farthest, 
( furthest. 


Fore, 


former, 


C foremost, 
I first. 


Good, 


better, 


best. 


Hind, 


hinder, 


( hindmost, 
\ hindermost, 


In, 




( inmost, 
I innermost. 


inner, 






( latest, 
I last. 


Late, 


( later, 
I latter, 




least. 


Little, 


less, 


( lowest, 
( lowermost. 


m 




Low, \ n 


lower, 




Many, > 
Much, > 


more, 


most. 

( nearest, 
I next. 


Near, 


nearer, 




nether, 
( elder, 
( older, 


nethermost. 


*f 


Old J 


C eldest, 
( oldest. 


4 




Out,\ 


outer, 


i outermost, 
I utmost. 


i A 


{ 


— — 


• under. 


undermost. 


* 


> • 


C uppermost, 
I upmost. 


Up,! 


upper, 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 21 

Farther is applied to distance, furtftcr to quantity ; as, He 
walked farther than you. Further funds are wanted. 

PERSONAL PRONOUNS 

Are so called because they are used instead of the names of per- 
sons, places, and things, to avoid the repetition of the noun for 
which they are put. 

The personal pronouns are J, thou, he. she, and it, with their in- 
flections, my, me ; thy, thee ; his, him ; her ; its ; our, us ; your> 
you ; their, them. 

I, which is used when a person speaks of himself, is called the 
pronoun of the first person. 

Thou or you, used in speaking to another, is called the pronoun 
of the second person. 

He, she, and it, used in speaking of a person or thing, are called 
the pronouns of the third person. 

Thou is seldom used except in addressing the Deity. 

You is now used both as the singular and plural of the second 
person. Ye is the old form of the nominative plural, and is chiefly 
used in the Bible and dramatic works. 

We is often used instead of I by sovereigns, authors, and pub- 
lic speakers. With sovereigns it is a sign of royalty. In order 
to avoid the appearance of egotism, / ought to be employed as 
little as possible in literary composition. 

It may be used not only in place of the name of an object, but 
instead of a clause of a sentence ; as, u It is the scholar's duty to 
learn his lessons well," instead of " To learn his lessons well is the 
scholar's duty." In such expressions as, It rains, it freezes, it 
does not stand for either a noun or a clause of a sentence, but is 
used to point out the effect of some cause not specified. 

My, thy, her, our, your, and their are used when the name of the 
person or thing possessed is mentioned immediately after them ; 
as, My book, your pen, her dress. Mine, thine, hers, ours, yours, and 
theirs are used when the name of the person or thing possessed is 
mentioned in a previous part of the sentence, or is only under- 
stood ; as, The book is mine ; the pen is yours. Whose is that 
dress 1 Hers. 

JtTiV^and thine were formerly used for my and thy before a vowel 
or h mute ; as, Mine eyes, mine own ; thine earn ; thine he\r. 



22 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

The word own is sometimes added to the possessives my, mine 
thine, his, her, its, our, your, and their, to render them more em- 
pathic ; as, My own book ; it is your own fault. 

Self, in the plural selves, is also added to the possessive case of 
pronouns of the first and second persons, and to the objective of 
pronouns of the third person ; as, Myself, ourselves ; himself, them- 
selves. These are called Reciprocal Pronouns, because, when used 
after verbs, they denote that the agent and the object of the 
action are the same ; as, They injure themselves, 

• RELATIVE PRONOUNS 

Are so called because they relate to some word or clause going 
before, which is called Antecedent, They are ivho, which, that, and 
what. 

Who is applied to persons only ; as, The man who was here j man 
is the antecedent. 

Who is also applied to inferior animals when spoken of as hu- 
man beings, in fable ; as, The stag who came to the river said to 
himself, etc. 

Which is applied to the lower animals and to inanimate things ; 
as, The horse which I bought ; the house which I sold. 

That is applied to both persons and things, and is used instead 
of who or which in certain cases; as, The friend that helps ; the 
bird that sings ; the knife that cuts. 

Wliat includes both the antecedent and the relative, being equiv- 
alent to that which or the thing which; as, I did what he desired me, 
that is, I did thai which he desired me. 

Who and which are thus declined or inflected : — 

Sing, and Plu. Sing, and Plu\ 

Nominative, Who, Which, 

Fossessive } Whose, Whose, 

Objective, Whom. Which. 

That and what are not varied by case. 

Who, which, and what, when ustd to ask questions, are called 
Interrogative Pronouns. When so used, toho refers to persons, 
which to persons or things out of some definite number, and what 
to persons or things indefinitely ; as, Who said so 1 Which of you 
said so ? Which book shall I take 1 What person said so 1 What 
house is that ? 



REGULAR AKD IRREGULAR VERBS. 23 

Ever, compounded with tv/to, which, and what, form a kind of 
indefinite relatives ; as, Whoever expects this ; whichever way you 
take ; whatever is, is right. These are still used by good writers, 
but whoso, whosoever, whatsoever are obsolete. 

Wlxat is often used as a simple exclamation, though perhaps 
forming part of a question ; as, What I cannot you stay a moment 1 

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS 

Are so called because they point out particularly the persons or 

objects to which they refer. 

They are this and tluit, forming in the plural, these and those. 
This and these are applied to persons or things near at hand, or 

last named ; that and those to persons or things at a distance in 

time or place ; as, This earth, these trees ; that sky, those stars. 

REGULAR AND IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Our English Verbs may be divided into two great classes — the 
Ancient, Strong or Irregular, and the Modern, Weak or Regular. 

Trench says : — " The terms ' strong ' and ' weak,' in all our 
grammars, have put out of use the wholly misleading terms, c ir- 
regular ' and ' regular.' " 

The Ancient. Strong or Irregular Verbs, change the interior 
vowel in forming the Past Tense, and generally form the Past 
Participle in en; as, Strike, strwck, strickffl; fall, fell, falferc. 
Sometimes they form both the Past Tense and the Participle by 
modifying the vowel, as, Bite, bit; read, read. 

The Modern, Weak or Regular, do not change the interior vowel 
in forming the Past Tense, and they generally form the Past Par- 
ticiple in d, cd, or t ; as, Move, move^, moved; fill, filled, fill«J; 
lose, lost, losf. 

All the Ancient or Strong Verbs are of Saxon origin. 

Many of our Modem or Weak Verbs are derived from the 
Latin. 

There are about one hundred and eighty Strong or Irregular 
Verbs. 

It is not uncommon to hear in the conversation of well-educated 
people, and to see in otherwise accurately printed works, an erro- 
neous use of the imperfect and perfect forms of some of the 



24 



GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 



Present. 


Past. 


I begin 


I began (not begun) 


I drink 


I drank (not drunk) 


Hay 


I laid 


Hie 


Hay 


I ring 


I rang 


I show 


I showed 


I shrink 


I shrank (not shrunk) 


I sing 


I sang (not sung) 


I sink 


I sank (not sunk) 


I spring 


I sprang (not sprung 


I swim 


I swam (not swum 



irregular verbs; as, It sunk, for it sank, etc. The following is a list 
of verbs in which mistakes most frequently occur : — 

Perfect Participle. 
I have begun 
I have drunk (not drank) 
I have laid 
I have lain (not laid) 
I have rung (not rang) 
I have shown (not showed) 
I have shrunk 
I have sung 
I have sunk 
I have sprung 
I have swum. 

SHALL AND WILL. 

The perplexities in the use of these words are too common to 
need any illustrations, A rule by which they may be avoided, 
however, appears to be still a desideratum. The late Henry Reed, 
in his posthumous lectures on English literature, reproduces one 
of the best views of the value and force of these auxiliaries which 
we have met. He says : " Upon this Subject, it has been observed, 
there is in human nature generally an inclination to avoid speak- 
ing presumptuously of the future, in consequence of its awful, 
irrepressible, and almost instinctive uncertainty, and of our own 
powerlessness over it, which, in all cultivated languages, has 
silently and imperceptibly modified the modes of expression with 
regard to it. Further, there is an instinct of good breeding which 
leads a man to veil the manifestation of his own will, so as to ex- 
press himself with becoming modesty. Hence, in the use of 
these words { shall ' and 'will' (the former associated with com- 
punction, the latter with free volition), we apply them not law- 
lessly, or at random, but so as to speak submissively in the first 
person, and courteously when we speak to or of another. This 
has been a development, but not without a principle in it; for, in 
our older writers, for instance, in our version of the Bible, * shall ' 
is applied to all three persons. We had not then reached that 
stage of politeness which shrinks from even the appearance of 
speaking compulsorily of another. On the other hand, the Scotch, 



SHALL A^D WILL. 25 

it is said, use ' will ' in the first person ; that is, as a nation, they 
have not acquired that particular shade of good breeding which 
shrinks from thrusting itself forward." 

Perhaps the best popular explanation of the general rule may 
he expressed thus : — 



1. ) You ) 2, ) You ) 

} will, He } shall ; I } shall, He } will. 

Ve ) They ) We ) They ) 



I 
We 

The form 1, is used to express futurity dependent on the will of 
the speaker; as, I will pay, You shall pay, He shall pay. 

The form 2, is used to express futurity not dependent on the 
will of the speaker ; as, I shall die, You will die, He will die. 

Originally it is likely that shall was always used (as it often is in 
our translation of the Bible and old books) to express simple 
futurity ; and will to express futurity dependent on the will, not 
of the speaker but of the person, whether speaker or not. This 
last use is retained where the will is emphatic ; as, He will pay, 
although he is not bound. 

It is improper to say, I will be hurt if I fall ; because in the 
first person icill expresses intention ; now it is not the intention of 
any person to be hurt. But it is proper to say, You will be hurt 
if you fall, or, He will be hurt if he fall ; because in the second 
and third persons, will only foretells or intimates w r hat will happen 
without implying intention. 

It also improper to ask a question in the first person by this 
verb ; as. Will I write 1 Will w T e write ? because it is asking what 
our own will or intention is, which we ought to know better than 
those whom we ask ; but it is proper to say, Wdl you write 1 Will 
he or will they write ? for that is asking what their intention is, or 
what is likely to happen without intention ; as, Will the clock 
strike? 

Shall is used like will, in the present tense of the indicative, to 
express future time, and in the past tense, assertion, referring to a 
condition which is not fulfilled ; as, I shall love ; I shall write if 
you wish. 

But with the first person, shall, contrary to will, expresses in the 
present tense, mere prediction or foretelling ; and in the past tense 
mere contingency, without implying any purpose or intention ; 
with the second or third persons it expresses command or inten- 
tion in the person speaking ; as, I shall bo hurt if I fall ; Thou 



26 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

shall not kill. Shall, therefore, is used in the first person, singular 
or plural, both in the present and past tenses, whenever mil can- 
not be used for the reasons given. We cannot say, I will be afraid, 
but I shall be afraid ; nor, We will be hurt if we fall, but We shall 
be hurt if we fall. 



ADVERBS 



Like adjectives, are sometimes varied in their endings to express 
comparison and different degrees of quality. Some adverbs form 
the comparative and superlative by adding er and est; as, Soon, 
sooner, soonest. Adverbs which end in hj, are compared by pre- 
fixing more and most; as, Nobly, more nobly, most nobly. 

A few adverbs are irregular in the formation of the compara- 
tive and superlative ; as, Well, better, best. 

MISAPPLICATION OF WORDS. 

Many persons misapply words, like the foreigner who, looking 
at a picture of a number of vessels, said, " See what a flock of 
ships ! " He was told that a flock of ships was called a fleet, and 
that a fleet of sheep was called a flock. And it was added for his 
guidance in mastering the intricacies of our language, that a flock 
of girls is called a bevy, that a bevy of wolves is called a pack, 
and a pack of thieves is called a gang, and a gang of angels is 
called a host, and a host of porpoises is called a shoal, and a shoal 
of buffaloes is called a herd, and a herd of children is called a 
troop, and a troop of partridges is called a covey, and a covey of 
beauties is called a galaxy, and a galaxy of ruffians is called a 
horde, and a horde of rubbish is called a heap, and a heap of 
oxen is called a drove, and a drove of blackguards is called a 
mob, and a mob of whales is called a school, and a school of wor- 
shippers is called a congregation, and a congregation of engineers 
is called a corps, and a corps of robbers is called a band, %nd a 
band of locusts is called a swarm, and a swarm of people is called 
a crowd. 

DIVISION OF WORDS. 

A Syllable is a single sound represented by one or more letters j 
as, a, on, word. 

A syllable always contains at least one vowel. 



CAPITAL LETTERS. 27 

The number of syllables in a word is always equal to the num- 
ber of distinct sounds which it contains. Thus the word strength 
contains one distinct sound or syllable ; strength-en contains two 
distinct sounds or syllables ; in-ven-tion contains three ; con-ve-ni- 
ence, four ; ver-sa-til-i-ty, five ; tran-sub-stan-ti-a-tion, six. 

A Word consists of one syllable, or a combination of syllables. 

A word of one syllable is called a Monosyllabic, us, just ; a word 
of two syllables, a Dissyllabic, as, jus-tice ; a word of three sylla- 
bles, a Trisyllable, as, jus-ti-fy ; a word of four or more syllables, 
a Polysyllable, as, jus-ti-fy-ing ; jus-ti-Ji-ca-tion. 

In writing and printing it is frequently necessary to divide 
words. Certain rules and cautions must be carefully observed on 
such occasions. 

1. Never divide words of one syllable — strength, alms, farm. 

2. Never separate letters of the same syllable — un-speak-able. 
Some divide according to pronunciation, but this is objectionable, 
for words of the same derivation frequently have the accent on 
different syllables, as, pre-fer, pref'-er-ence. 

3. Divide compounds into their component parts— lamp-post, pen- 
Jcnife, . ♦ 

4. Keep the root whole in derivatives — touch-ing, preach-er, lov- 
est. 

5. Divide words ending in, Hon, cious, dan, sian, thus — mo-iion } 
vi-cious, mu-si-cian, ex-ien-sion. 

CAPITAL LETTERS 

Must be used in the following situations : — for the first letter of 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every verse or line of poetry. Every line, 
as it is commonly called, should be styled a verse, and a series of 
lines popularly styled a verse is properly called a stanza. A verse 
is a single measured line, containing a determinate number of 
syllables, rising and falling, or, in other words, accented and 
unaccented in a certain prescribed order. 

3. The first word of a quotation in a direct form; as, Franklin 
says : " Serve yourself." 

4. All^names of the Deity ; as, Almighty God, Jehovah, Most 
High, Jesus Christ, Emmanuel, Our Lord, The Holy Ghost, or 
Spirit, and He, His, Him, when the Deity is referred to without 
being named. 



28 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

5. All proper names, that is, the name of a person, place, etc., 
and the adjectives derived from proper names ; as, His brother 
Henry speaks German fluently. William the Norman who over- 
came Harold the Saxon at the battle of Hastings, is styled the 
Conqueror. The French have landed. Shakespeare was born at 
Stratford-upon-Avon. 

6. All titles of honor ; as, the Honorable Oakes Ames ; the 
Reverend Bishop of Oxford ; the Chief Justice ; the Master of 
Trinity College. 

7. Names of days, months, and holy days ; as, Christmas fell on 
the last Saturday in December. They had a party on New Year's 
Eve. 

8. Any very important word; as, the Revolution, the Union, 
the Reformation, the Rebellion. 

9. The pronoun I, and the interjection 0. 

If any strong emotion enter into the sentiment, the proper 
orthography is Oh. The aspiration or breathing of the h expresses 
stronger feeling than the mere utterance of the letter 

10. Common nouns personfied ; as, " Death ! where is the 
£ting % " 

The use of italics in printing is much less frequent than for- 
merly, and the underlining of words in writing, which is used for 
the same purpose, is now generally discontinued, except in very 
particular cases. 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Since the time of our earliest authors there has been a gradual 
improvement and simplification in the spelling of English words, 
so that the orthography of our language is now very different from 
what it was at various periods. To a modern reader the spelling 
of Chaucer and Spenser is as strange as the costume of their age. 
The tendency to simplify spelling still continues. 

A certain degree of uniformity prevails in the spelling of many 
classes of words ; but the exceptions and anomalies are so 
numerous, that in orthography, as in orthoepy, perfect accuracy 
is only to be attained by attending to the best authorities. 

Bad spelling is always a mark of an imperfect education. But 
even classical scholars are not always correct in their English 
orthography. This arises, we believe, from their having mostly 
leavned spelling by the common method of repeating columns of 



RULES FOK SPELLING. 29 

words — a tedious and irksome practice. They never make mis- 
takes in spelling Latin words, because they learn the orthography 
of that language by constant reading and writing, which are the 
best methods of acquiring correct spelling in any language. Those 
whose spelling is incorrect should copy extracts from the best 
authors, using good editions. The extracts should be copied 
several times. This practice will not only perfect the orthography 
but also tend to form a good style of composition. Writing from 
dictation is an excellent practice, but chiefly useful as a test of 
spelling, and is not often convenient for adults. 

The great number of English words are not reducible to rule, 
but there are fixed rules for certain formations. The chief rules 
are the following, and those given for the formation of plurals at 
page 23 and for the comparison of adjectives at page 28. 

1. Words ending in silent e drop it before an augment or addition 
beginning with another vowel, and before y when a vowel, that is, 
when y does not begin a word or syllable ; as, Advise, advis-able, 
advis-*V#; blame, b\&m-ab!e, blam-i;?^; cure, cuv-able, cuv-inq ; 
excuse, excus-able, excus-ing ; fame, fam-ous ; blue, blu-ish ; 
rogue, YOgu-i$h; white, whit-wA; fence, fenc-ible; sense, sens- 
ible ; ease, eas-y; haste, hast-y ; paste, past-y. 

Exceptions. — The c is retained in eye, eye-ing ; hoe, hoe-ing; 
shoe, shoe-ing ; tinge, tinge-ing ; and in dye (to stain), dyeing, to 
distinguish it from die, dying. 

2. Words ending in silent e change the e into i before ///and ty ; 
as, Active, activity ; cave, cnx-i-ty ; pure, pur-t-fy. 

Exceptions. — Safc-ty ; sure-ty. 
* 3. Words ending in Silent e generally retain it before fid, less, ly, 
ment, some, and ty ; as, Waste, waste-fid; guile, guile-less; brave 
bvsLYe-ly ; abridge, abridge-ment ; move, move-ment ; acknowledge 
2LCknoY?\edge-meni ; wholesome, wholesome-w£s$ k 

Exceptions. — Argue, argument ; aw*, awful; dm?, duly; true 
truly ; whole, wholly. 

Smart says : — "Judgement .acknowledgement, etc., are less frequently 
spelled without the e after g than with it. If so spelled, the g is 
irregular in sound, being never elsewhere soft but when e, i, or y 
follows. Johnson, who spells the other words without the e, spells 
lodgement with it. Todd, in his edition of Johnson, makes all these 
words consistent, and all regular in spelling." In this particular 
Smart follows Todd. 



30 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

. Mr. Thomas Ford says : — " The probable accidental omission of 
the e in the words abridgment, acknowledgment, and judgment, in the 
original edition of Johnson's Dictionary, have given a precedent 
for long-continued deviations for the rule which preserves that 
vowel from elision in the above words, and which would appear to 
be the same as that guiding its preservation when c or g comes 
soft before words terminating with able. There is no apparent 
reason for the omission of the c in these three words, more than 
in others of the same class or formation, and, indeed, they are 
now frequently spelled with that vowel. Although the e was 
omitted in the original edition of Johnson's Dictionary, it was re- 
stored in that by Todd. Dr. Lowth and Mr. Walker are of opin- 
ion that the silent e in such words ought to be preserved." 

4. "Words ending in silent e, preceded by c or g soft, retain e be- 
fore able and ous ; as, Charge, chargeable ; change, changeable ; 
manage, manager We ; peace, peaceable ; service, serviceable / cour- 
age, courageous ; outrage, outragiotts. 

; Exceptions.— Grace and vice change the e into i ; as, Grac*bus r 
vie /ous. 

5. Words ending in silent e, preceded by c or g soft, drop the e 
before ing ; as, Abridge, ahr\dg-ing ; allege, aVteg-ing ; enclose, en- 
c\os-ing ; judge, judg-ing ; lodge, lodg-ing / pronounce, pronounc- 
ing ; state, stat-u/y. 

6. Words in which silent e is preceded by /, m, s, or v, and fol- 
lowed by able, are unsettled, some authorities dropping the e while 
others retain it. Webster omits it, and consistency is in favor of 
his orthography — Movable, blamable, provable, etc. 

Walker says : — " The mute e ought to have»no place, when fol- 
lowed by a vowel, in words of our own composition, where the 
preceding vowel has its general sound ; and therefore, as it is in- 
clinable, desirable, etc., so it ought to be reconcilable, reconcilably, etc. 
This was the orthography adopted by Dyche, before it became so 
fashionable to imitate the French." 

7. Words ending in ie change those vowels into y before ing, 
without exception; as, Bel/e, beh'ed, he]y-ing ; die, died, dy-ing ; 
hie, hied, hy-ing ; lie, 1/ed, \y-ing ; outh'e, outlain, outbj-ing ; outvie, 
outvied, outvy-ing ; tie, tied, ty-ing. 

8. Words ending in y after a consonant, change the y into * be- 
fore all augments, except ing, ish, and s preceded by an apostro- 
phe for the possessive case; as. Fancy, fanciful ; saucy, sauci-ness ; 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 31 

merry, merrier, merriest; Fancy-ing ; study-ing ; baby-wA; dry-ish ; 
beauty's charm ; fancy's beam. 

Exceptions. — Beauteous, duteous, bounteous. 

Dryly, dryness, shyly, shyness, slyly slyness, and some others, 
are considered to be exceptions. It were better that these words 
conformed to the rule, and changed the yinto i, but custom, which 
is all-powerful, forbids it. 

9. Words ending in y after a vowel do not change the y before 
an augment ; as, Delay, delay-*?*?, delay-wy ; obey, obey-ed, obey- 
ing ; convey, convey-ed, convey-ing ; joy, joy-ows. 

Excptioxs.— Day, daily; lay, laid; pay paid ; say, said ; stay 
staid. 

10. "Words of one syllable ending in a single consonant preceded 
by a single vowel, double the consonant before a vowel augment ; 
as, Bog, bog-gy ; fop, iog-yy ; gum, g\xm-my ; mud, mud-dy ; knot, 
knot-ty ; \>up, pnp-py ; star, starry. 

11. Words of one syllable having two final consonants, or the 
final consonant preceded by two vowels, do not- double the final 
consonant ; as. Ash, as/i-y ; cloicd, c\ou-dy ; chalk, chalk-y ; cool, 
cool-est ; dusk, dusk-y ; bill, bill-y ; meek, meek-er ; stem, stern-est. 

12. Words of more than one syllable, accented on the final syl- 
lable, ending in a single consonant, preceded by a single vowel, 
double the final consonant before a vowel augment ; as, Refer', 
referred, reier-ring ; enrol', enrol-led, enrolling ; prefer', m°efer-red, 
-pvefer-ring. The consonant is not doubled before an augment be- 
ginning with another consonant; as, prefer-ment; enrol-ment. 
Preference and reference having the accent transferred to the first 
syllable, do not double the r. 

13. Words of the above class, not accented on the final syllable, - 
or if accented on the final syllable, having the single final conso- 
nant preceded by a diphthong, do not double the final consonant ; 
as, Cov'et; covet-ed, covet-ing ; credit, credit-ed, crediting ; Wm'it, 
Wmit-ed, llmit-ing ; conceal', conceal-ing, conceal-ment ; reveal, 
revealing. 

There has long been much uncertainty as to the propriety of 
doubling the final consonant of words before adding the augments 
ed, er, or ing, and as these augmented words are seldom inserted 
in our dictionaries, great confusion upon this subject is common. 
The rules for the doubling of the consonants before these aug- 
ments is generally known and practised but not universally, and 



32 GKAMMAR MADE EASY. 

it has not yet become the custom to spell counsellor, leveller, wor- 
shipper, etc., with one I or p only, although these and words of the 
same class are occasionally written and printed with their respec- 
tive final consonants single when followed by augments. Lowth, 
Webster, and other eminent authorities have observed that the 
doubling of these consonants is as anomaly in spelling whie. 
neither analogy nor pronunciation justifies. 

Walker says :— " The letter I, has not only, like / and s, the 
privilege of doubling itself at the end of a word, but it has an ex- 
clusive privilege of being double where they remain single. Thus, 
according to the general rule, when a verb ends in a single conso- 
nant, preceded by a single vowel, and the accent is on the last 
syllable, the consonant is doubled when a participial termination 
is Added, as, abet, abetted, beg, begging, begin, beginning, etc. ; but 
when the accent is not on the last syllable of the verb, the conso- 
nant remains single, as suffered, suffering, benefiting, etc., but the I is 
doubled whether the accent be on the last syllable or not, as, 
dwelling, levelling, victuaUing, travelling, traveller, etc." 

Although it must be admitted that the doubling of the / and^j 
in words not accented on the final syllable, is against all rule, and 
only used to satisfy the eye which has become accustomed to it, 
we give a list of words in which all-powerful custom incorrectly 
requires their use. 

Apparel, apparelled, apparelling. 

Barrel, barrelled, barrelling ; Bevel, bevelled, bevelling. 

Cancel, cancellated, cancellation, cancelled, cancelling ; Carol, 
carolled, carolling; Counsel, counsellable, counselled, counsellor, 
counselling; Cudgel, cudgelled, cudgeller, cudgelling. 

Dial, dialled, dialling, diallist; Dishevel, dishevelled, dishevel- 
ling; Drivel, drivelled, driveller, drivelling; Duel, dueller, duel- 
ling, duellist, duello. 

Embowel, embowelled, embowelling ; Enamel, enamelled, en- 
ameller, enamelling. 

Flannel, flannelled, flannelling ; Fuel, fuelled, fuelling. 

Gambol, gambolled, gambolling ; Gospel, gospelled, gospeller, 
gospelling ; Gravel, gravelled, gravelling ; Grovel, grovelled, grov- 
eller, grovelling. 

Handsel, handselled, handselling. 

Jewel, jewelled, jeweller, jewelling, jewellery. ,■ 

Kennel, kennelled, kennelling. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 33 

Label, labelled, labelling ; Level, levelled, leveller, levelling (lev- 
elness) ; Libel, libelled, libeller, libelling, libellous. 

Marshal, marshalled, marshalling ; Marvel, marvelled, marvel- 
ling, marvellous. 

Outrival, outrivalled, outrivalling. 

Panel, panelled, panelling ; Parcel, parcelled, parceller, parcel- 
ling ; Pencil, pencilled, pencilling ; Peril, perilled, perilling (peril- 
ous) ; Pommel, pommelled, pommelling. 

Quarrel, quarrelled quarrelling. 

Ravel, ravelled, ravelling ; Revel (revelry), revelled, reveller, 
revelling; Rival, rivalry, rivalled, rivalling. 

Shovel, shovelled, shovelling ; Shrivel, shrivelled, shrivelling, 
shriveller; Snivel, sniveller, snivelled, snivelling. 

Tinsel, tinselled, tinselling ; Trammel, trammelled, trammelling ; 
Travel, travelled, traveller, travelling ; Trowel, trowelled, trowel- 
ling ; Tunnel, tunnelled, tunnelling. 

Worship, worshipped, worshipper, worshipping. 

14. Words ending in any double letter except /, retain the dou- 
ble letter before the augments/**/, ///, less, and ness ; as, Bliss, bliss- 
ful ; cross, cross-/?/ / gross, gross-it/ ; success, success-frss ; care/m, 
careless-?jm ; gru^", gvuff-ncss. 

15. Words ending in // drop one I before ful,hj, and less ; as, 
Ski//, skilful; full, tvd-ly ; ski//, ski/-fcss. 

16. Words ending in //retain the double letter before the aug- 
ment ness ; as, III, Ml-ness ; sma//, sraa//-««s ; ta#, tall-ness. 

Exceptions. — Chilness, dulness, fulness. These are excepted 
by all authorities, but many other words of this class are spelled 
differently in various dictionaries. Webster doubles the /, and 
consistency is in favor of his orthography. Walker says that if 
tallness is deprived of one / it ought undoubtedly to be pronounced 
like the first syllable of tal-loiv, which sufficiently shows the 
necessity of spelling it with double L He also says : — " As // is a 
mark of the deep, broad sound of a in ball, tall, etc , so the same 
letters are the sign of the long open sound of o in boll (a round 
stalk of a plant), to joll, noil (the head), knoll (a little hill), poll, 
roll, scroll, droll, troll, stroll, toll ; for which reason leaving out 
one / is an omission of the utmost importance to the sound of the 
words; for, as the pronunciation sometimes alters the spelling, so 
the spelling sometimes alters the pronunciation." 

17. Words ending in / or //, both as simples and compounds, are 



34 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

still unsettled. Webster doubles the /, and we think his rule should 
be followed. 

He says : — " The omission of one / in befall, install, recall, en- 
thrall, etc., is by no means to be vindicated; as by custom the two 
letters 11 serve as a guide to the true pronunciation, that of broad 
a or aw. It is therefore expedient to retain both letters." 

Churchill says : — " That some regular principle on this head 
should be adopted, is desirable. Uniformity to retain the double 
letter would be simple and easy." 

Exceptions. — Almighty, always, fulfil, welcome. 

18. Words augmented by full, generally drop one I when nouns 
and always when adjectives ; as, 

Armful, glassful, handful, pailful, spoonful, etc. 
Awful, blissful, brimful, careful, cheerful, etc. 
When the augment/?/ is required, the /is doubled ; as, AwfuWy; 
blissful-/?/ ; playful-/*/ ; useful-/?/, etc. 

19. Words ending in two consonants never double the last be- 
fore the augments ed and ing ; as, Abstract, abstract, abstracting ; 
attest, attested, attesting ; cowed, corrected, correcting ; object, ob- 
ject, objecting ; pervert, perverted, perverting. 

A SHORT SYNTAX. 

When several nouns are joined together, some of which require 
a before them and others an, the indefinite article should be re- 
peated before each of them ; as, A horse, an ass ; and a cow. 

When two or more nouns or adjectives are joined together, the 
article is placed only before the first of them, if they are applied 
to the same person or thing ; as, The great and good Alfred. 

But it should be placed before each of them if they are applied 
to different persons or things ; as, The English and the French 
people. 

An article should be placed before a participle used as a noun 
and followed by of ; as, In the hearing of the judge. But it is in- 
correct to say, " Let us guard against the giving way to resent- 
ment," because the participle, not admitting cf after it, lo govern 
the noun following, is simply a verb, and therefore the article 
should be omitted. 

The omission of the article before the limiting words, few, Utile, 
and small, increases the restriction. I used little severity, means 



A SHORT SYNTAX. 35 

not much and may imply none ; but, I used a little severity, implies 
some and perhaps much. 

When the possessor is described by two or more nouns, the 
apostrophe, or sign of the possessive case, should be placed after 
the last noun ; as, In William the Conqueror's time. 

When the thing possessed belongs to two or more nouns, the 
sign of the possessive should be put after each j as, It was my 
father's, brother's, and grand-father 's estate. 

The objective case with of is frequently used instead of the 
possessive ; as, The servant of my father. 

But when the thing is only one of a number belonging to tho 
possessor, both the possessive case and of are used ; as, A servant 
of my father's, the word servant being understood after father's ; 
the full construction of the phrase being, " A servant out of' or 
" from among my father's servants." 

The verb to be should have the same case after it as came before 
it ; as, It is I (not me), be not afraid ; who (not whom) do men say 
that I am 1 Whom (not who) do they represent me to be ? 

A noun or pronoun which answers a question, should be in the 
same case with the noun or pronoun which asks the question ; as, 
Who said that! — He, not him ; who is there 1 — I, not me; xvhom did 
you see 1 — Him ; whose house is this ? — John's. 

A noun or pronoun following thtcn or as, must be of the same 
case as that with which the comparison is made, though not im- 
mediately connected ; as, / am as old as he (is) ; he is richer than I 
(am) ; lie praised them more than me. 

The indefinite pronouns all, any, none, such, etc., require the verbs 
to be in the singular or plural, according to the sense to be con- 
veyed ; as. All (everything) is peaceful ; all (people) are offended 
with you ; is there any ale in the house 1 My right there is none 
(no one) to dispute ; I wanted some apples but there were none 
(not any) 

Two or more nouns in the singular number, separated by or or 
nor require the verb to be in the singular; as, Either John or 
Thomas speaks ; Neither John nor Thomas was present. The rea- 
son of this obviously is that only one of them is said to speak, not 
both ; and that the not being present is affirmed of John and 
Thomas separately, not together. 

Two or more nouns in the singular number, joined by the con- 



36 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

junction and, require the verb to be in the plural number ; as ; John 
and Thomas are present. 

When two nouns, or a noun and pronoun, in the singular num- 
ber are connected by the preposition with, or by such expressions 
as, as well as, the verb must be in the singular ; as, John wth his 
son was in town to-day ; he as well as his son it in town. 

When two or more nominatives in different numbers are joined 
by or or nor, the verb must be in the plural ; as, Either you or lave 
in fault ; neither cucumbers nor vinegar are to be had. 

The plural nominative must always be placed next to the verb ; 
as, Are the people or the King to blame 1 

When two or more nominatives in the same number, but of dif 
ferent persons, are joined by or or nor, the verb agrees with the 
last ; as, Either thou or he is wrong. 

When two or more nominatives of different persons are joined 
by the conjunction and, the verb agrees with the first person in 
preference to the second, and with the second in preference to the 
third ; as, You and I have done our duty ; you and he have had 
your share. 

Collective nouns should be followed by verbs in the singular or 
in the plural number, according as unity or plurality of idea is to 
be expressed ; as, The. council is sitting ; the clergy arc divided 
among themselves. D'Orsey says : — '' Usage, which gives law to 
language, is here quite at fault, our best authors being inconsistent 
with themselves, and with each other. Till certain rules shall be 
established, the following are offered as approximating to fixed 
principles : — 

''If a collective noun is preceded by a or an, and expresses a 
vague number or quantity, the verb is generally plural ; as, A num- 
ber of men go out to hunt. 

" If a collective noun marks a complete or determinate number, 
and is preceded by such defining terms as the, this, that, my, thy, 
his, each, every, no, etc., the verb is singular ; as, The number in- 
creases daily ; my class improves ; no tribe appears more savage. 

"In the case of such words as committee, council, society, public, 
majority, minority, etc., the verb should be singular if the state- 
ment is true only of the whole body ; but plural if what is assert- 
ed applies rather to the individuals ; Congress has determined ; the 
committee were divided in their opinions. 

" Such terms as couple, dozen, score, million, etc., expressing a 



A SHORT SYNTAX. 37 

known number in the singular form, require plural verbs. Pair, 
however, takes the singular. There were a dozen, but there is a 
pair, 

" Such expressions as the following are wrong : — Those sort of 
people do injury; these kind of oranges are bitter. Yet there is 
something very harsh in the change to the singular ; as, That sort 
of people docs injury; this kind of oranges is bitter. It is better to 
transpose the order, and retain the plural verb, thus: People of 
that sort do injury ; oranges of this kind are bitter." 

The verb to be is often preceded by it, used as a sort of imper- 
sonal nominative, in which case the singular number is used, 
though followed by a plural noun; as, It is six weeks ago ; It is 
James and John who are wrong. 

The adverb there is often employed in a similar manner, but it 
allows the verb to agree with the noun following it ; as, There arc* 
apples on the tree. 

A singular verb, however, is used when it is introduced by this 
or any other adverb, and followed by two or more singular nouns 
as, There is a knife and fork on 'the table. 

D'Orsey says : — " It would be insufferably harsh, however it 
might be contended for as correct grammar, to say, ' There are a 
knife and fork. 1 It must be, ' There is, 1 which may be justified by 
supposing that an ellipsis is used, and that the full expression is, 
' There is a knife, and there is a fork.' The necessity of using the 
singular verb will more fully appear if we suppose a pronoun used 
in the sentence, ' Bring me a knife and fork; there is one on the 
table.' We feel it to be impossible to use any plural pronoun to 
stand for knife and fork in this case. In like manner we would 
set down as a pedant the man who should ask, ' Where arc my 
hat and stick 1 ' The reason appears to be, that the sense is com- 
plete with the first nominative, and the ear has been offended by 
the pl*ral verb before the second nominative is announced to ac- 
count for it. It is otherwise when the sense is suspended, as it is 
by the use of auxiliaries, ' Where have my hat and stick been put 1 ' 
Here the mind is carried forward to been put, as the completion of 
have, and the two nominatives have appeared in the meantime.' ' 

The present infinitive, and not the perfect tense, should be used 
after a past tense ; as, I intended to see you, not to have seen you ; 
unless we speak of something prior to the time indicated in the 
past tense ; ats, Ho appeared to have seen better days. The past, and 



38 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

not the pluperfect tense, should be used in the potential mood ; 
as, I thought he would die, not would have died. 

The adverbs hence, thence, and whence do not require from before 
them, as each contains in itself the power of that preposition ; as 
Depart hence, that is, from this place ; Whence came you 1 that is, 
from what place; He went thence, that is, f?-om that place. 

Wben a preposition governs the relative who or ivhich, it must be 
placed before it, and both must precede the verb ; as, To whom do 
you speak? not, who (or whom) do you speak to ? The man to whom 
I spoke. 

Yet when the pronoun is suppressed, the preposition is put after 
the verb ; as, The man I spoke to yesterday. 

The relative that is not subject to this rule ; as, It is* the same 
horse that you were looking at. 

• Certain words and phrases require certain prepositions to be 
used with them. Some admit different prepositions for different 
meanings ; thus, You are disappointed of a thing which you ex- 
pected, if you do not obtain it ; you are disappointed in it, if you 
obtain it and it does not answer your expectations. The preposi- 
tions proper to be used in each case must be learned not by rules, 
but by reading the best authors, and carefully considering the 
logical meaning of those which you use. 

Some conjunctions have corresponding conjunctions, by which 
they should be followed; thus, both is followed by and ; either by 
or; neither by nor; though by yet; whether by or, etc.; as, Both 
you and I saw it ; either you or I must go ; neither you nor I saw 
him ; though he was rich, yet for our sakes he became poor. As, 
as is used in affirmative, but so, as in negative comparison ; as, 
Mine is as good as yours ; but his is not so good as either. 

PUNCTUATION 

Is the art of dividing a 'written composition into sentences or parts 
of sentences, by points or stops, for the purpose of marking, to 
the eye, the different pauses which the grammatical construction 
requires. Much confusion has been caused by confounding the 
Elocutionary Pause with the Grammatical Point. The two are 
distinct— pauses belonging to the expression and meaning of a 
sentence, and points to its meaning and construction. The punc- 
tuation is usually made by the printer, according to the rule which 



PUXCTUATIOX. 39 

he prefers. These rules differ greatly, many being arbitary and 
illogical, and others unsettled. Few authors have a correct 
knowledge of punctuation, and many consider the subject beneath 
their serious attention. Because they know what they mean to 
express (which, by the by, is not always the case), they are a jit to 
think the reader will, as readily as themselves, understand their 
meaning. They suffer for this neglect by many of their finest 
* thoughts being but imperfectly understood and appreciated. Some 
writers seem to throw in their commas, semicolons, etc.. promis- 
cuously ; while others scarcely use a point in a sentence. Others, 
again, have very extraordinary crotchets upon punctuation, and 
will not allow a printer's reader (who is usually an excellent gram- 
marian) to alter a single comma, or improve the construction of a 
sentence, however awkwardly put together. * 

Of late years, a system of punctuation styled high pointing has 
been adopted by many authors. It seems to consist in a supera- 
bundant use of the comma, this point being placed wherever there 
is the slightest opportunity for making a pause in reading the 
words aloud. The system of high pointing has, doubtless, arisen 
from writers confounding the grammatical points with the elocu- 
tionary pauses. They have punctuated .their writings as they 
would have read them aloud, not perceiving that few works, in 
proportions to the numbers written, are read aloud ; and also, that 
it would be difficult to express by marks all the pauses made -by a 
good reader or speaker ; still more difficult to express by marks 
the duration of those pauses ; and that such marks would be un- 
sightly in print, and beget a mechanical mode of delivery. The 
points are intended for the eyes of the reader, to make the sense of 
the words clear to him at sight. The pauses made by a person 
reading aloud, or by a good speaker, are not only used to make 
the sense clear to the hearer, but also to produce many very strik- 
ing and expressive 'effects, and to give the reader time to take 
breath, and an occasional rest. 

Correct punctuation is most important to the sense. A passage 
wrongly punctuated may be made to bear a meaning totally dif- 
ferent to that which the writer intended to convey, as the follow- 
ing example will prove. 

When Lady Macbeth snatches the daggers from the hands of 
her husband, and goes to the chamber of the murdered Duncan, 
to " to smear the sleepy grooms with blood," so that " it may seem 



40 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

their guilt," Macbeth, left alone, in the agony of his remorse thus 
apostrophizes his crimsoned hands. The last verse of this magni- 
ficent passage is here pointed as it was given, probable from the 
time of the Restoration until Garrick hit upon the right pause : — 

n 

" Whence is that knocking ? 
How is't with me, when every noise appals me ? 
What hands are here 1 Ha ! they pluck out mine eyes ! 
Will all great Neptune's ocean wash this blood 
Clean from my hand ? No ; this my hand will rather 
The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
Making the green one, red." 

Now, to call the ocean " the green one " is to convey a very ludi- 
crous meaning ; but by placing a dash after " green,'* as Garrick 
did, a sublime idea is expressed, Macbeth being made to explain 
that his bloody hands would redden the entire ocean: — 

" No ; this my hand will rather 
The multitudinous seas incarnadine, 
Making the green — one red." 

It has indeed been truly said that there is but one step from the 
sublime to the ridiculous. That step may be made by a point 
falsely placed. The necessity of punctuation may be illustrated 
by the following verses : — 

I saw a peacock with a fiery tail 

I saw a blazing star that dropp'd down hail ; 

I saw a cloud begirt with ivy round 

I saw a sturdy oak creep on the ground 

I saw a daisy swallow up a whale 

I saw the brackish sea brimful of ale 

I saw a phial-glass sixteen yards deep 

I saw a well full of men's tears to weep 

I saw man's eyes all on a flame of fire 

I saw a house high as the moon or higher 

I saw the radiant sun at deep midnight 

I saw the man who saw.this dreadful sight 

Which should be punctuated thus : — 

I saw a peacock ; with a fiery tail 

I saw a blazing star ; that dropped down hail 

I saw a cloud ; begirt with ivy round 

I saw a sturdy oak ; creep on the ground y 



THE COMMA. 41 

I saw a daisy ; swallow up a whale 
• I saw the brackish sea ; brimful of ale 

I saw a phial-glass ; sixteen yards deep 
I saw a well ; full of men's tears to weep 
I saw man's eyes ; all on a flame of fire 
I saw a house ; high as the mooii or higher 
I saw the radiant sun ; at deep midnight 
I saw the man who saw this dreadful sight. 
The points used to mark the grammatical structure of sentences 
are the comma (,), the semicolon (;), the colon (:), the period, or 
full stop (.), the note of interrogation (?), the note of exclamation 
(!), the dash ( — ). the apostrophe ('), the parenthesis (), the hy- 
phen (-), and quotation marks (" " ' ' ). 

The following are the chief rules for correct punctuation : — 

THE COMMA 

Is used to group words into clauses, to mark parenthetical clauses 
and to show an ellipsis or omission of some word or words. 

A comma should be placed wherever there is an ellipsis, or 
omission of a word. 

When several words of the same class follow one another, with- 
out conjunctions, commas should be placed between them ; as, It is 
the duty of a friend to advise, comfort, exhort. Reputation, vir- 
tue, happiness greatly depend upon the choice of companions. 

There is considerable difference of opinion as to whether words 
situated like the preceding should be pointed off from those to 
which they are mutually related, as well as from each other. " It 
seems to be admitted, that if adjectives or adverbs, they should not 
be separated from the words they qualify ; as, A learned, wise, and 
good man ; correctly, perspicuously, and elegantly written. But 
when they are nominatives belonging to the same verb, or verbs 
governing the same objective,, some authors place a comma after 
them ; as, Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the pros- 
pect of many a youth. 

To guide, to cheer, to charm, to bless, 

To sanctify, our pilgrimage on earth. 

While others would omit the commas after obstinacy or sanctify ; 

and as the tendency at present is to the use of much fewer stops 

than formerly, we are disposed to justify the omission." 



42 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

But there is a much better reason for omitting the comma. In 
the first example there is an ellipsis of and and blast, etc., £fter 
self-conceit, and an ellipsis of blast, etc., but not of and after 
presumption and in each place a comma is required to show the 
place of the ellipsis ; but there is not any at obstinacy, and conse- 
quently a comma is not needed. In the second example there is 
an ellipsis of our pilgrimage, etc., after each of the verbs except 
sanctify, and consequently a comma should be placed after each 
verb except sanctify 

When words of the same class follow each other in pairs, a com- 
ma should be placed between each pair ; as, Truth is fair and art- 
less, simple and sincere, uniform and constant. 

The clauses of a compound sentence should be separated by 
commas ; as, He studies diligently, and makes great progress. 

Words denoting the person or object addressed, and words 
placed in opposition, are separated by commas ; as, My son, give 
me thy heart. The butterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the 
sun. 

Words which express contrast or opposition, should be separated 
by a comma, whether connected by a conjunction or not ; as, He 
was learned, but not pedantic. Though deep, yet clear ; though 
gentle, yet not dull. The flock, and not the fleece, ought to be 
the object of the shepherd's care. 

Adverbial and modifying words and phrases should be separa- 
ted by commas ; as, Finally, let me repeat what I stated before. 

An expression, supposed to be spoken, or taken from another 
writer, but not formally quoted, should be preceded by a com- 
ma; as, I say unto all, Watch. Plutarch calls lying, the vice of 
slaves. 

A word or phrase emphatically repeated should be separated by 
a comma ; as, Turn ye, turn ye, why will ye die % 

Phrases formed of one or more adverbs, with participles, infini- 
tives, or nouns with prepositions, should be separated from the 
other phrases by commas ; as, I shall not, however, dispute his 
right. It proceeded, in a great degree, if not altogether, from mis- 
apprehension. 

When, however, an adverb does not appear as a phrase, but 
directly qualifies some word in the sentence, it must not be separ- 
ated by a comma. Parenthetical clauses should have commas 
before and after them. 



THE COLOJtf. 43 

If we say: M The diligent student will most certainly excel," 
there occur here no words but what belong grammatically to each 
other, and stand in their natural order ; but if we say : " The dili- 
gent student, it it certain, will excel," the words, it is certain, hav- 
ing no grammatical relation to those either before or after them, 
form a parenthetical clause, which requires to be marked off. 

THE SEMICOLON 

Is used to separate those divisions of a sentence called members, 
which are larger than phrases. 

When a sentence consists of two parts, the one complete in 
itself, and the other added as an inference, or to give some ex- 
planation, they are separated by a semicolon ; as, Economy is no 
disgrace ; for it is better to live on a little than to outlive a great 
deal. Fhave no respect for titled rank, unless it be accompanied 
by true nobility of soul ; bat I have remarked in all countries 
where artificial distinctions exist that the very highest classes are 
always the most courteous and unassuming. 

When a sentence contains an enumeration of several particulars, 
the clauses should be separated by semicolons : as, Philosophers 
assert that nature is unlimited in her operations; that she has 
inexhaustible treasures in reserve ; that knowledge is progressive j 
and that all future generations will continue to make discoveries, 
of which we have not the slightest idea. 

When several distinct facts or augments are grouped together, 
and made constructionally to correspond with each other, they 
should be separated by semicolons : as, Our business is interrupt- 
ed ; our repose is troubled ; our pleasures are saddened ; our very 
studies are poisoned and perverted ; and knowledge is rendered 
worse than ignorance. 

THE COLON Z 

Is used to mark a greater division of a sentence than that requir- 
ing a semicolon. 

When a sentence consists of two parts, the one complete in 
itself, and the other containing an additional remark, the sense but 
not the construction of which depends on the former, they should 
be separated by a colon ; as, Study to acquire the habit of think- 
ing: no stud} r is more important. 

Whether a colon or a semicolon should be used sometimes de- 



44 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

pends on the insertion or omission of a conjunction; as,* Do not 
flatter yourself with the hope of perfect happiness : there is no 
such thing in the world. Do not flatter yourself with the hope of 
perfect happiness ; for there is no such thing in the world. 

When the sense of several members of a sentence, which are 
separated from each other by semicolons, depends on the last 
clause, that clause should bo separated from the others by a colon ; 
as, A Divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an Al- 
mighty governor, stretching forth his arm to reward or punish : 
these are considerations which overawe the world, support integ- 
rity, and check guilt. 

The colon is used after an independent prefatory passage intro- 
ducing a speech or quotation; as, Eustace St. Pierre thus 
addressed the assembly : " My friends, we are brought to great 
straights this day." 

It is also used to mark the introduction of the several heads 
into which a subject is divided ; and specifications of any kind. 

THE PERIOD, OR FULL STOP 

Is used to mark the end of all sentences, unless they are interro- 
gative or exclamatory, in which cases the notes of interrogation or 
exclamation must be used. 

Care should be taken not to divide a sentence into sentences 
instead of marking the divisions by semicolons ; as, His under- 
standing, acute and vigorous, was well fitted for diving into the 
human mind. His humor, lively and versatile, could paint justly 
and agreeably what he saw. He possessed a rapid and clear con- 
ception! with an animated and graceful style. Semicolons should 
be used instead of periods at mind and saw, and the last member 
be connected by and. 

The period is also used to mark abbreviations and contractions ; 
as. M. C, Member of Congress ; Esq., for Esquire ; Co., for Com- 
pany, etc. 

Abbreviations should be kept for special uses in lists of cata- 
logues, etc., and avoided as much as possible in every kind of 
elegant or polite composition. 

Whenever abbreviations are used, they should be followed by 
the period to denote that they are abbreviations, and in positions 
where a comma, semicolon, or colon would be necessary after the 



THE PERIOD, OR FULL STOP. 45 

full word, it must be attached to the abbreviations ; as, F. A. A., 
M. C. When a sentence finishes with an abbreviation, there is no 
necessity for a second period. 

The note of interrogation is used after sentences which ask 
questions ; as, Whence comest thou 1 It must be placed after 
eveiy distinct question, even though several should occur in suc- 
cession. It must not be used afier words which merely state that 
a question has been asked ; as, An infidel once conversing with a 
Christian, asked him what his God was, and how large he was. 

The Spaniards place the note of interrogation at the commence- 
ment of the sentence which contains the question, to prepare the 
reader for the question which the sentence puts. 

The note of exclamation is used after all interjections, and after 
words or sentences which express emotion, admiration, etc. j as, 
Hark ! he comes. Peace ! how desirable thou art ! 

When these feelings are expressed in an interrogative form, and 
no answer is either expected or implied, the note of exclamation 
should be used instead of the note of interrogation. 

The note of exclamation should be carefully and sparingly 
used. 

The dash is used to mark a break or abrupt turn in a sentence ; 
as, 

Here lies the great — False marble, where 1 
Nothing but sordid dust lies here. 

Also when a word is repeated with explanation ; to supply the 
place of suppressed letters or words ; after the side-heading of 
paragraphs; between an extract or quotation and the author's 
name, if the latter be added ; and in place of the preposition to ; 
as, Page 10—20. * 

The parenthesis is used to enclose an explanatory clause or 
member of a sentence, not absolutely necessary to the sense j as, 

Know then this truth (enough for man to know), 
Virtue alone is happiness below. 

The hyphen (-) is used to connect compound words. But many 
are now written without the hyphen, chiefly those composed of 
two nouns, as milkmaid, etc. It was formerly used to separate a 
prefix from the root, but it is not so used now ; unless the omis- 
sion of it would produce a double vowel or two vowels that might 



46 GRAMMAR MADE EASY. 

be mistaken for a proper diphthong. Thus we write coequal and 
coincide ; but co-operate and re-enter are preferable to cooperate and 
reenter. 

The hyphen is also used at the end of a line when a word is 
divided for want of space. 



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TERENCE TIERNEY , ADMIRAL. 

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THE CABIN BOY: 

A TALE OF THE WIDE OCEAN. 

BY CAPTAIN L. C. KINGSTON. 



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Importance of the Orator— Power of the Orator—Various 
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No. 3. 

THE PEEP O'DAY BOYS; 

Or, Wild Life on the Mountains 

BY H. BANIM. 

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~^ No, 4. 




Tlie Mountain Chief. 

BY JOHN BANIM. 

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No. 5. 

Clerk Barton's Crime; 

Or, THE MYSTERIES OF A NIGHT. 
A Tale of New York Life, High and Lo\y. 

BY STEELE PENN. 



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The Best Work ca tho Horse Ever Published, 
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Condition. 

General Arrangement of Stables. 
Simple Rules for Shoeing. 

Management of the Feet of Horses. 

Causes of Disease, and its Prevention. 
-Breaking and Training of Horses. 
Physiology of the Horse. 
Breeding. 

Care of Sucking Colts. 
The Mare for a Farmer. 

Diseases of Horses, Etc., Etc., Etc. 

In preparing this work, the writer has provided for every pos- 
sible exigency that may occur in the horse's career. The part 
devoted to the Diseases of the Horse is especially worthy of 
Edmiration, from its clearness, pointedness, and absence of un- 
necessary technicalities. More practical knowledge can be ob- 
tained oi* the anatomical structure, the cause and cure of dis- 
ease, and the laws that govern and regulate health, by an hour's 
study, than months of reading through a dozen volumes, each, 
costing three times the price of this. 

The book is handsomely printed on good paper, illustrated 
with two very fine double-page engravings, representing the 
points of a horse and the diseases of the horse, 

PRICE— FIFTY CENTS. 

Seat by maj} (9 any address w receipt of pric* 



"Dancing Made Easy." 

BALL-ROOM DANCING 
WITHOUT A MASTER, 

AND 

Complete Guide to the Ball-Room. 



A book giving a simple description of the dances in popular 
use, free from the usual technicalities, has been long desired. 
To meet this want the publishers have engaged a celebrated pro- 
fessor and teacher of Dancing to write a book that shall supply 
this deficiency. In this the professor has been eminently suc- 
cessful. We may confidently assert that any one can, by the aid 
of this book, become proficient in the art of Ball-Boom Dancing. 
The different dances are illustrated by diagrams and figures, 
making every step and variation quite clear and simple. 

CONTENTS. 

How to Organize a Ball. Valse a Deux Temps. 

Ball-Boom Toilet for Ladies Galop. 

and Gentlemen. Mazourka Valse. 

Etiquette of the Ball-Boom. Waltz Cotillion. 

Quadrilles. Lancers. 

Cheat Figure. Tempete. 

Jig Figure. Caledonians. 

Basket Figure. Couple Dances. 

Double Quadrille. New Valso Cotillion/) 

Polka. Virginia Beel. 

Schottische. The Varsoviana. 

Bedowda. The Gorlitza. j 

Polka Mazurka. The New Valse. v 

Spanish Waltz. Pop Goes the Weasel. ' 
And many other popular dances. 

Beautifully illustrated, and well printed. Price 25 cent* 
Sent to any address on receipt of price. 



THE ART OF 



HUNTING, TRAPPING AND FISHING 

IvCA-DE! EASY, 
BY AN OLD AND SUCCESSFUL HUNTER. 

A Complete and Practical Guide for the use of the Amateur 
or Professional Hunter or Trapper. 



This book will be found very valuable to those who have not had experience 
in these healthy, manly and profitable pursuits. The book is thorough in 
detail in every respect. The young sportsman can learn bow to use the Gun 
or Rifle with ease and precision, and become an unerring shot. The mystery 
of making, setting and baiting Traps successfully, is shown. 

The Best Methods .of Catching all kinds of Fish, 

Either in the Sea, Lake or River, is told practically and understanding^'. The 
whole 

Art of Managing and Training Dogs for Sporting Purposes, 

and all about the care of Skins and Furs, so that they will fetch the highest 
market price, is given, with a vast amount of other valuable information 
relating to the Hunters Craft. 



CONTENTS. 



About Guns. 

How to Select A Gun. 

Breech- Loaders. 

How to Load a Gun. 

The Art of Gunning. 

The Rifle, and How to Use it. 

About Dogs. 

Management of Dogs. 

Training of Dogs. 

Best Dogs for Shooters. 

Hunting, Gunning and Shooting. 

Rabbit Shooting. 

Snipe Shooting. 

Partridge Shooting, 

Woodcock Shooting. * 

Wild Fowl Shooting. 

Deer Hunting. 

Buffalo Hunting. 



Trapping. 

How to Make Traps. 
Setting and Baiting Traps. 
Proper Season for Trapping. 
Hints to Trappers. 
Specific Directions for Trap- 
ping AND SNAREING ALL KINDS 

of Birds and AlNimals. 
Fishing. 

Baits. Hooks, Lines, Rods, &c. 
How to Catch Various Kinds of 

Fish. 
The Art of Stretching and 

Curing Skin p. 
Dressino and Tanning Skins and 

Furs. 
Coloring and Dyeing Skins and 

Furs. 



The Book is indispensable to all who delight to Fish, Hunt or Trap, cither 
for sport or profit. The instructions will enable anyone to become thoroughly 
expert in the Sports and Pastimes of the River, Field or Forest. Illustrations 
are given, where needed, to elucidate matters, as in the construction of traps, 
&c. 

This book will place many in a position to turn their spare time to a very 
profitable account. Furs and Skins are always in demand, and if properly 
caught azd managed, sell for large prices.— Price 2 5 Cents. 



TIT-BITS OF FUN, 



:fo:r, 



JOLLT MORTALS,, 



->-e-«- 



Here are the portraits of two men who rea^ two and a half 
pages of this Book of Phunniest of Phun. One expanded so 
much that his tailor bills have ruined him, and still his clothes 
are continually getting " tight." The other has been so exhil- 
arated that there is dangefr of him never again becoming con- 
scious of the realities of life. 





We warrant this Book to be a sure cure for every ailment un- 
der and above the moon, sun. stars, and comets. It is a complete 
medley of Irish, Dutch, and Yankee Yarns, Blunders, and Bulls. 
It contains the richest gems of wit, the most laughable puns, out- 
rageous drolleries, ludicrous burlesque, and side-splitting: jokes; the 
newest stories, the most comical sells, and the raciest jests ; besides, 
there are lots of funny and irresistible pictures. 

SPECIAL. NOTICE.— Unless you want! to 
laugh and get fat, don't send for it. 

Caution.— Before buying, be sure to see that your buttons 
are O. K., and your rib3 are not defective, because we assert, 
positively and emphatically, that we will not be responsible for 



damages* 



Price, 25 Cents. 



soracts OF £OVE. 

A very elegant collection of Love Songs and Heart Melodies. There 
are songs and poetic sentiments suitable for every phase of love's 
varied experience. — Price 20 Cents. 



THE SPOUT'S OWN SOB7GSTER. 

A collection of the choicest, richest, spiciest, and raciest Songs and 
Ballads ever given to the fraternity. Suitable alike for humorous 
gatherings, jovial entertainments, M we won't go home till morning " 
meetings, and high old times generally. There are many new effusions 
never before published,— Price £5 Cents. 



BOtfEST ASS'S JOKES. 

This Book is a gem for those who can appreciate the keen repartee, 
the witty remark, or the pointed anecdote. It is a volume well worth 
preserving, as being a collection of the jokes, squibbs, and stories of 
President Lincoln. 

Abraham Lincoln's character for jokes and " little stories M is too 
well known to need any explanatory remarks from us. It will be suf- 
ficient to know that these are his bona fide sayings, as fresh and racy 
as when they issued from his bosom, and are, as a whole, the most 
remarkable, pointed, and apt replies, illustrations and examples ever 
given to the world. They are perfect gems of wit and humor. They 
sparkle like brilliants of the first water, and not one single example 
in the whole collection is ever dull, pointless, or even doubtful. They 
are all pungent, unequivocal, and original, related in that peculiar, 
characteristic, and irresistible style that only Abraham Lincoln could 
use. Illustrated with portrait of Honest Abe, and also with four 
scenes in his career, representing him as a backwoodsman, as a vol- 
unteer in the Black Hawk war, as a raftsman, and as a rail-splitter. — 
Price 50 Cents, 



BOOK-KEEFXCTG MADE EAST. 

Few will question the importance of a correct knowledge of keeping 
accounts, but there is, probably, no branch of education so generally 
neglected or on which so much ignorance is manifested. The total 
neglect of it in our Public Schools and the lengthy, wordy, and cum- 
bersome treatises that have been written with the object of teaching 
it, may cause this state of things. 

Book-keeping is a very simple art, and can readily be mastered by 
any one of ordinary capacity in a very short time. In any business, 
however small, a knowledge of bookkeeping is indispensable. This 
book is just the one needed by the learner, being simple, thorough, 
and practical. Its teachings will enable any one to acquire the whole 
art of book-keeping, both by single and double entry ,-^Priee 85 
Cents. 




Grammar Made Easy. 



COMPLETE MANUAL OF INSTRUCTION 



FOR CORRECT 



READING, WRITING AND SPELLING. 




i"@m AB^LTS. 




NEW YORK: 
HURST & CO., PUBLISHERS, 



75 and 77 Nassau Street. 










A SURE GUIDE TO AUTHORSHIP ! 



KEY TO COMPOSITION ; 

OR, 

HOW TO WRITE A BOOK. 



As the title indicates, this book is 
A COMPLETE GUIDE TO AUTHORSHIP, 

JLND 

PRACTICAL- INSTRUCTOR 

IN, ALL KINDS OF LITERARY LABOR. 

Books heretofore published on these matters have taken it for granted 
that the learner has had some knowledge of the essentials of composition, 
and have given advice and instructions suitable only to those of some experi- 
ence in Literary Composition. Other works have entirely neglected to give any 

Information Relating to Publishing, Proof-Reading, 

and other important matters relating to the getting up of books and placing 
them before the public. This book has carefully avoided these errors. It 
presumes, at the commencement, that the literary aspirant is totally ignorant 
of the construction of a composition, and commences at the first rudiments of 
the art, taking the learner from the construction of the most simple sentences 
gradually, but surely, to 

The Most Elaborate Composition, 

suitable for the highest kind of literary effort. The information given regard- 
ing Publishing, and the 

COUNSELS TO YOUNG AUTHORS, 

is valuable, and has never been given to the public before. As an Aid and In- 
structor to those who desire to follow literary pursuits permanently for profit, 
or to those who write for recreation and pleasure, the book is indispensable. 

PRICE 30 CENTS. 

X&r~ Sent by mail, to any address, on receipt of price. 






THE? lo vers: l ibrary. 

Come, thou lover, on whose eyes 
Dreams of absent beauty rise, 
In my little page thou'lt find 
Balmy medicine for the mind. 



A new series of books, devoted entirely to the sim- 
plifying and making clear the ways and intricacies of 
the hymenial path, for the instruction and comfort of 
those who have been the victims of Cupid's heartless 
wiles and cruel attacks. 

No. 1. 

LOVE-MAKING SECRETS; 

OB, 

THE ART OF BEING POPULAR WITH THE LADIES. 

A book that will gladden the hearts of thousands of both sexes. 
It will cause more hearts and hands to be united in wedlock than 
any other human instrumentality can do. No maiden's heart 
can be so obdurate or perverse as to resist the attentions be- 
stowed upon it, if performed in the manner here indicated. 

Full and practical directions are given to woo and win he most 

beautiful, the most reserved, the most romantic, the most 

sentimental, the most religious, the most bashful, 

the most poetic, the most perverse, the 

most educated, the most refined girl 

that ever had two eyes to bewilder and confuse an unfortunate 
man. It also tells 

The way to court an Actress, Old Maid, Heiress, and a Widow. 
When Men and Women are adapted for Marriage. 

How to choose a Wife. 
How to live happy, and enjoy unceasing bliss in the nuptial state. 
It also gives 

Important Counsels to a Newly-Married Pair. 



Price, 20 Cents. 



Sent, post paid, to any address on receipt of price. 



few and Popular Books. 



Tricks and Diversions with Cards. 

An entirely new work, containing all the Tricks and Deceptions with Cards 
ever invented, including the latest tricks of the most celebrated Conjurors, Magi- 
cians and Prestidigitators, popularly explained, simplified and adapted for Home 
Amusement and Social Entertainments. They are so elucidated that any one 
/with a little practice, can perform the most difficult tricks, to his own sat- 
isfaction and to the wonder and admiration of his friends. There is also a com- 
plete exposure of all the Card Tricks made use of by Professional Card Players, 
Blacklegs and Gamblers. It also contains the art of Fortune Telling by Cards. 
Illustrated by many engravings. Price, 30 cents. 

The Magician's Guide, or Conjuring Made Easy. 

A complete Manual of Instruction in the art of Magic, by a celebrated Profes- 
sional. This book will be largely sought for by all who desire to become ac- 
quainted with the Mysteries of Magic, and to make their mark in social amuse- 
ments or public entertainments. This book is not a compilation of discon- 
nected experiments, but a regular systematic course of instruction, beginning 
at the simplest feats of Legerdemain, and by a series of progressive lessons 
takes the learner into the more complicated operations of Natural Magic, Chem- 
istry, Galvanism, Magnetism and Electricity. It is the only work published 
that really teaches the Conjuror's Art. Illustrated by numerous engravings. 
Price, 25 cents. 

The Great Chinese Wizard's Hand-Book of 
Magic. 

A Book of Marvels. The Mysteries of the Black Art are now exposed. The 
mysterious and awe-inspiring feats and performances of the most celebrated 
Magicians, Enchanters and Wizards are here explained, including the operations 
of Conjurors of Ancient and Modern Times. The most amazing and apparently 
most wonderful impossibilities in Natural Magic, Chemistry, Galvanism, Elec- 
tricity, Cards, Jugglery, Coins, Legerdemain, White Magic, &c, are made quite 
clear, so that any one can perform them. It also contains the art of making Fire 
Works. Price, 20 cents. 

JSent by mail to any address on receipt of price. 



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